Fig. 1

Bright-field image of copper electrodeposition in the nanoaquarium operating in a three-terminal configuration with Pt electrodes controlled by a Gamry potentiostat. Aqueous solutions of 0.1 M CuSO₄ + 0.18 M H₂SO₄ were prepared in doubly deionized water and were not deaerated before use. The interface morphology evolution was imaged during galvanostatic deposition with a total current of 400 nA. The transmitted beam current of 0.1 nA was spread over ~2-μm diameter resulting in a dose rate of 7.5 × 10⁶ (Gy/s) or 2 (e⁻/Ų-s). The liquid thickness at the edge of the silicon nitride window is fixed to 200 nm by lithography. a Example raw data of Cu electrodeposition with overlaid crop indices (red disks) and the desired angle of rotation. b The resulting, cropped, rotated image. We refer to b as the sub-image. The lateral field of view is approximately 1850 nm in a and 1000 nm in b